Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids food intake and metabolic syndrome in adolescents 12 to 17 years old: A school-based cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Fatty acids (FAs) of the omega-3 and omega-6 family are considered essential, and adequate intake seems to be associated with lower risk of developing chronic non-communicable diseases. The objective was to evaluate the association of omega-3 and omega-6 FAs dietary intake with the prevalence of MS and its components waist circumference (WC), blood pressure (BP), fasting blood glucose, triglycerides and High Density Lipoprotein - cholesterol (HDL-c) in Brazilian adolescents aged 12-17 years. METHODS: This is a school-based cross-sectional investigation, using data from the Study of Cardiovascular Risks in Adolescents (ERICA), carried out between 2013 and 2014. The following variables were collected and assessed: 1) sociodemographic (sex, age, type of school, school location whether urban or rural and region of the country); 2) food consumption was measured through a 24-h Food Recall (24 hR), and a second 24 hR was applied to 7% of the total sample; 3) anthropometrics (weight, height, WC), BP and biochemical (glycemia, triglycerides and HDL-c) were also assessed. Logistic regression analysis was performed according to gender and age group. RESULTS: A total of 36,751 adolescents participated in the study. The intake of omega-3 FAs in the total population was 1.71 g/day and of omega-6 FAs, 13.56 g/day, with an omega-6/omega-3 ratio of 7.93:1. It was found that higher intake of omega-3 FAs was associated with an 53% lower chance of low HDL-c. For omega-6 FAs, no significant results were found. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicated an association between omega-3 FAs and HDL-c. More studies are needed to elucidate the effects of omega-6 FAs.

Association between dietary patterns and biomarkers in connection with diabetes mellitus in adolescents: A systematic review.

AIMS: To perform a systematic review to investigate the association between adolescents' a posteriori dietary patterns with diabetes-related biomarkers (fasting blood glucose, fasting insulinemia, glycated hemoglobin and homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR)). DATA SYNTHESIS: Review registered with PROSPERO under number CRD42020185369. Studies with adolescents aged 10-19 years that identified dietary patterns by a posteriori methods were included. The databases used included: PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Food Science and Technology Abstracts, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Lilacs/BVS, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ProQuest Dissertations&Theses Global and Capes Theses Bank and Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations. Risk of bias was assessed via the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality tool. Eight cross-sectional studies that evaluated 6438 adolescents (55.5% females) were included. For fasting blood glucose, the results were inconsistent and some studies found no association for the dietary patterns called traditional (57%), Western (42%) and healthy (28%). For the fasting insulinemia and HOMA-IR outcomes, the Western dietary pattern showed a positive association or higher means in 60% and 50% of the studies, respectively. No studies that evaluated glycated hemoglobin were found. CONCLUSION: Fasting insulinemia and HOMA-IR outcomes were positively associated with the Western dietary patterns. The studies reviewed did not present consistent evidence of an association with western, healthy and traditional dietary patterns with fasting blood glucose, as the results were conflicting or did not show statistical significance.

Association between dietary inflammatory index and anthropometric indicators of adiposity in Brazilian adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Diet may play a role in the regulation of obesity-related low-grade chronic inflammation. OBJECTIVE: Assess the association of the Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII) with anthropometric indicators of adiposity in Brazilian adolescents. METHODS: Data were collected from 71 740 adolescents (12-17 years old) examined in the Study of Cardiovascular Risks in Adolescents. Food consumption was assessed by means of one 24-h dietary recall, and DII was estimated using 39 food parameters. The body mass index (weight/height2 ) for age and sex was used to define overweight (>1 z-score). Abdominal obesity was indicated by waist circumference (WC) values >80th percentile and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) > 0.50. The association between DII and anthropometric indicators was assessed using logistic regression models. RESULTS: The mean DII score was higher in girls than in boys (0.77; SD = 0.04 vs. 0.04; SD = 0.05). Adolescents in the 4th quartile of DII, compared with those in the 1st quartile, had increased odds of being overweight (boys: OR = 1.76; 95% CI: 1.37; 2.25; girls: OR = 1.63; 95%CI: 1.36; 1.95), having abdominal obesity (boys: OR = 1.61; 95%CI: 1.33; 1.95; girls: OR = 1.73; 95%CI: 1.48; 2.03), and having high WHtR (boys: OR = 1.91; 95%CI: 1.52; 2.39; girls: OR = 1.75; 95%CI: 1.46; 2.11). CONCLUSIONS: The findings showed a direct association between the dietary inflammatory potential measured by DII and adiposity.

Scientific evidence of the association between oral intake of OMEGA-3 and OMEGA-6 fatty acids and the metabolic syndrome in adolescents: A systematic review.

AIMS: To conduct a systematic review of the literature on the scientific evidence of the oral intake of omega-3 and omega-6 FAs and metabolic syndrome (MS) in adolescents. DATA SYNTHESIS: The study was registered in PROSPERO (number 42020185370). Studies were carried out with adolescents aged 10-19 years, who presented as intervention/exposure the oral intake of omega-3 and/or omega-6 fatty acids (FAs), in the databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, LILACS, CENTRAL, and PQDT Global e BDTD. The tools used to assess the risk of bias were RoB 2.0, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Fifteen papers retrieved published from 2010 to 2019 were included (n = 3534); nine were randomized studies and controlled clinical trials, four were cross-sectional studies, one was a retrospective cohort study, and one case-control study. No studies have evaluated the effect or association of omega-3 and/or of omega-6 FAs with actual MS, only with its components. The randomized clinical trials identified the effects of omega-3 FA on the decrease in blood pressure (n = 1 out of six), glycemia (n = 2 out of seven), and triglycerides (n = 5 out of eight), and the increase in HDL-c (n = 2 out of eight) considering the comparison between the group that received omega-3 FA and the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Scientific evidence is controversial on the association between oral intake of omega-3 FAs and MS in adolescents, due to the heterogeneity between studies and the divergence of results for the same MS component.

Positive Additive and Multiplicative Interactions among Clustered Components of Metabolic Syndrome with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus among Brazilian Adolescent Students.

Background: It is still controversial whether the joint effect of Metabolic syndrome (MetS) components is greater than that expected based on their independent effects, regarding type 2 diabetes mellitus in adolescents. We evaluated additive and multiplicative interactions between pair-wise combinations of metabolic syndrome components regarding type 2 diabetes mellitus. Methods: We studied 37,815 Brazilian adolescents from a national school-based survey, The Study of Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Adolescents (Portuguese acronym, ERICA). A Poisson regression model was used to calculate sex-, age-, obesity-, smoking status-, sedentary behavior-, physical inactivity-, alcoholic consumption- and socioeconomic status-adjusted prevalence ratios to evaluate both additive and multiplicative interactions. Results: In the comparison of observed and expected joint effects, relative excess risk due to additive interaction (RERI) for high triglycerides and low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, high triglycerides and elevated waist circumference, elevated waist circumference and low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and elevated waist circumference and high blood pressure were 2.53 (−0.41, 5.46), 2.86 (−2.89, 8.61), 1.71 (−1.05, 4.46) and 0.97 (0.15, 1.79), respectively, thus suggesting additive interactions. Multiplicative interactions for those pairs of components were also observed, as expressed by interaction ratios > 1.0. Conclusions: The joint presence of some of the components of MetS showed a greater association with the prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adolescents than expected from the sum of their isolated effects. From a public health perspective, preventing one of the components of the pairs that interact may result in a greater reduction in the prevalence of T2DM than focusing on an individual component that does not interact with another component.

Association between Obesity, Overweight, Elevated Waist Circumference, and Insulin Resistance Markers among Brazilian Adolescent Students.

(1) Background: There is still controversy concerning the most effective and efficient strategy to identify insulin resistance in adolescents. We estimated the level of fasting insulin (fasting insulin equivalent, FIeq) that would replicate the strength of the associations of obesity, overweight, and waist circumference with two insulin resistance markers: triglyceride/high-density lipoprotein (TG/HDL) and triglyceride/glucose (TyG); (2) Methods: We studied approximately 38,000 adolescents aged 12 to 17 years, sampled from a multicenter Brazilian school-based survey, The Study of Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Adolescents (Portuguese acronym, ERICA), conducted in 2013-2014. Fasting insulin equivalents for adiposity variables were calculated by dividing the beta coefficient of each adiposity measure by the fasting insulin beta coefficient from linear regression analysis according to age (12-14, 15-17 years old) and sex, and adjusted by smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, sedentary behavior, socioeconomic status, and Tanner stage; (3) Results: The FIeqs for obesity were greater than those for overweight and elevated waist circumference for both TG/HDL and TyG in early adolescence. The FIeqs for elevated WC were greater than those for obesity and overweight in adolescents aged 15 to 17 years; (4) Conclusions: Our study suggests that WC measurements might be useful to identify adolescents with insulin resistance, particularly in late adolescence.

Comparison of Quality of Carbohydrate Metrics Related to Fasting Insulin, Glycosylated Hemoglobin and HOMA-IR in Brazilian Adolescents.

Low glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) diets are effective for glycemic control (GC) associated with a carbohydrate-controlled meal plan. However, whether GI and GL peaks are related to GC is unknown. Objective: To compare the daily GI (DGI)/GL (DGL) and average GI (AvGI)/GL (AvGL) of meals (accounting for peaks) related to GC markers (GCM) in Brazilian adolescents. Methods: A representative national school-based (public/private) sample of students without diabetes, 12−17 years of age, was evaluated. Food intake was based on a 24 h recall. The models for complex cluster sampling were adjusted (sex, sexual maturation, age, and physical activity). Results: Of 35,737 students, 74% were from public schools, 60% girls, 17% overweight, and 8% obese. The minimum DGI and DGL were observed at lunch, with higher values at night. Fasting insulin was 1.5 times higher in overweight/obese (OW) girls, and 1.7 times higher in OW boys than in normal-weight (NW) girls. The same trend was observed for the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (OW = 2.82 vs. NW = 1.84 in girls; OW = 2.66 vs. NW = 1.54 in boys; p < 0.05). The daily and average metrics were greater for NW adolescents. Glycosylated hemoglobin was not associated with these metrics, except for AvGL. Insulin and HOMA-IR were associated with all metrics in NW adolescents, with greater coefficients associated with AvGL. Among overweight/obese adolescents, only GI metrics were associated (ß = 0.23; AvGI and insulin) and appeared to have the best association with GCM. Conclusions: Among NW adolescents, GL is a better measure of carbohydrate quality, but for those with overweight/obesity, carbohydrate consumption is more associated with GC, probably because they eat/report small amounts of carbohydrates.

DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) and overweight/obesity in adolescents: The ERICA study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Childhood and adolescent obesity is one of the most important issues in the global health of the population and has been increasing dramatically in recent decades. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between overweight/obesity and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet score in a representative sample of Brazilian adolescents. METHODS: Data from the Study of Cardiovascular Risks in Adolescents (ERICA), a national school-based survey, were used. A total of 71,553 adolescents (12-17 years old), of both sexes, participated in the study; they had their anthropometric measurements taken and responded to a 24-h dietary recall. Eight food components of the DASH score were evaluated. 1) fruits (except fruit juices), 2) vegetables (except potatoes and beans), 3) pulses/nuts, 4) whole grains, 5) low-fat and diet/light dairy products, 6) sodium, 7) red and processed meats, and 8) sugary drinks and fruit juices. A higher score was indicative of greater accordance with the DASH diet, with a final score ranging from eight to 40 points. The association between overweight/obesity and the DASH score was assessed using Poisson regression models. RESULTS: The highest prevalence of overweight/obesity was observed among boys aged 12-14 years (28.2%), white (27.7%), enrolled in private schools (32.4%) and among those who practiced ≥300 min physical activity/week (26.1%). The food groups most frequently consumed were sugary drinks, pulses and nuts, and red and processed meats. No association was found between overweight/obesity and the DASH diet score in Brazilian adolescents, in the adjusted analysis models. CONCLUSIONS: Low consumption of foods considered protective and high consumption of health-risk foods, even among adolescents with greater accordance with the DASH diet, may have contributed to these findings. Public health measures are needed to prevent/reduce the prevalence of overweight/obesity in adolescence, as it is a risk for overweight/obesity in adulthood as well as other complications, leading to loss of quality of life for the individual and increased health spending.

Contribution of away-from-home food to the energy and nutrient intake among Brazilian adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the contribution of different food consumption places to the energy and nutrient intake among Brazilian adolescents. DESIGN: We analysed data from the Study of Cardiovascular Risk in Adolescents - ERICA, carried out in 2013-2014. Foods were categorised into thirty-three food groups. Energy, nutrients and food groups were analysed according to home, public and private schools, and other places of foods consumption. Linear regression models were used to test the association between eating away from home and nutrient intake. SETTING: Brazilian public and private schools. PARTICIPANTS: All adolescents who had undergone anthropometric evaluation and provided information through the questionnaires, including the 24-h recall (n 71 740). RESULTS: The main portion of energy intake per day was consumed within the adolescent households (8112·776 kJ (1939 kcal), 95 % CI 1892, 1985). Away-from-home eating was reported by 52 % of students in a given day, but it contributed to only 15 % of total energy intake. This contribution was mainly due to high energy-dense food intake. The percentage contribution of foods consumed at public school and other places was very similar with respect to nutrients. However, food consumption at other places meant less intake of protein, fibre and Fe, in addition to increasing the intake of added sugar and fats. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of food consumption outside the home by adolescents is high, although the main contribution to energy intake occurs at home, and despite the similarity of nutrients consumed in school and restaurants, the latter tends to worsen the nutritional quality of meals.

Association between DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) and hypertension in adolescents: A cross-sectional school-based study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) is considered a healthy dietary pattern, and is recommended for the control of arterial hypertension (AH). However, its role in the adolescent population needs to be better investigated and clarified. The aim of this study is to identify the association between AH and the DASH diet score in a representative sample of Brazilian adolescents. METHODS: A cross-sectional study using data from a national, multicenter and schoolbased probabilistic sample of 71,553 Brazilian adolescents who had their blood pressure (BP) measured and completed a 24-hour dietary recall (2013-2014). The components of the DASH score were assessed. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association between AH, anthropometric and sociodemographic variables, and the tertile of the DASH score. RESULTS: Approximately 11% of the adolescents who were in the 3rd tertile of the DASH score presented AH, 18% were overweight and 9% were obese. Among the components of the score, the highest intake was sugar-sweetened beverages (92.1%), legumes and oilseeds (68.2%), red and processed meat (64.5%) and the lowest were low-fat dairy (2.2%), whole grains (11.6%) and fruits (18.1%). Sodium intake was above the maximum recommended in all tertiles. CONCLUSIONS: A small proportion of Brazilian adolescents consume foods from the DASH diet. No associations were found between this dietary pattern and AH. Strategies to increase the intake of protective foods in adolescents must be investigated as well as the potential health benefits of the standard DASH diet for this age group over time.

Trends in obesity prevalence among Brazilian adults from 2002 to 2013 by educational level.

BACKGROUND: Obesity ranks as a major public health problem in many countries in the world. The obesity-socioeconomic status relationship is not well established in middle-income countries. METHODS: The aim of this study was to estimate the obesity and overweight trends from 2002 to 2013 by sex, age, and educational levels among Brazilian adults. The panel prevalence trend study was conducted, considering the sample weights and study design. Three nationwide surveys were analyzed: the Household Budget Survey 2002/2003 and 2008/2009, and the National Health Survey 2013. The total sample was 234,791 adults aged 20-59 years. RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity increased from 7.5 to 17.0% from 2002 to 2013 among adults aged 20-39 years and from 14.7 to 25.7% among those aged 40-59 years, slightly higher among young women. In each survey, education was positively associated with the prevalence of obesity among men, whereas this association was negative among women. The greatest increase in the prevalence of obesity was 90% (11.9 to 22.5%) and occurred from 2008 to 2013 among women with secondary educational level, whereas at the pre-primary level there was a 42% (20.4 to 29.0%) increase. CONCLUSIONS: Obesity prevalence in Brazil continued to increase, mostly among women with secondary education. Policies aimed at reducing the prevalence of obesity should consider sociodemographic characteristics in the population.

Comparison between household food purchase and individual food consumption in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to compare Household Budget Survey (HBS) data on food purchasing and individual food consumption, collected in the same nationwide survey. DESIGN: Food purchase information for each household was collected by a seven-day collective acquisition diary, applied to 55 970 households. Food consumption information was obtained from household members over 10 years old by the application of two non-consecutive food records in a sub-sample of the HBS. Cooking and correction factors were applied when necessary, and all food items reported were grouped into twelve main food groups. Food purchase and consumption data were presented as absolute weight (g/person per d) and as relative contribution to energy intake (%) for the overall study population, which was stratified according to household income. SETTING: Brazil.ParticipantsNational estimates of food consumption and purchase for Brazil. RESULTS: The greatest differences between purchase and consumption data (purchase minus consumption) were observed for meat (-168 g), beans/legumes (-48 g), roots/tubers (-36 g) and fruits (-31 g). When expressed in terms of energy contribution, the highest differences were found for cereals (13 %) and oils and fats (11 %). Differences between purchase and consumption data were generally lower in the highest compared with the lowest household income quintile; and were lower for most main food groups when considering only foods reported as being eaten at home. CONCLUSIONS: With few exceptions, food purchase expressed as relative energy contribution, as opposed to absolute weight, can provide a good picture of actual consumption in the Brazilian population.

Major food sources contributing to energy intake--a nationwide survey of Brazilians aged 10 years and older.

Identification of major sources of energy in the diet helps to implement dietary recommendations to reduce obesity. To determine the food sources of energy consumed by Brazilians, we used the traditional method of ranking energy contribution of selected food groups and also compared days with and without consumption of specific food groups. Analysis was based on two non-consecutive days of dietary record from the Brazilian National Dietary Survey, conducted among 34,003 Brazilians (aged 10 years or more), taking into account the complex design of the survey. Comparison of days with and without consumption gave more consistent results, with sweets and cookies as the most important contributors to energy intake, increasing 992 kJ/d (95% CI 883, 1096) for those days when consumption of cakes, cookies and desserts was reported compared to days without their consumption. Savoury snacks, cheese and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) also increase energy intake by about 600 kJ. The only group associated with decreased energy intake was vegetable (-155 kJ; 95% CI -272, -37). Consumption of beans, milk and fruits increased the energy intake by about 210 kJ. In total, the mean energy intake of the group was 8000 kJ. Except for the consumption of vegetables, all of the other ten food groups analysed were associated with increased energy intake. Sweets and cookies may increase the energy intake by 12% and SSB by 7%, indicating that these two groups are major targets for improving healthy eating by reducing energy intake; whereas vegetable intake is associated with the reduction of energy content of the diet.

Dietary sources of sodium intake in Brazil in 2008-2009.

Information on the main dietary sources of sodium is essential for developing public health strategies to reduce sodium intake. This study aimed to describe sodium intake according to sex, age, and income and identify the main dietary sources of sodium in Brazil. In total, 34,003 subjects aged 10 years and older participated in the first Brazilian National Dietary Survey, conducted in 2008-2009. Food was classified according to the sodium profile into 31 groups based on a 1-day food record. The daily per capita intake of sodium (mg/day) and sodium density (mg/100 g) were estimated for each food group and stratified by sex, age, and per capita income quartile. The average daily intake of sodium was 3,190 mg/day. The sodium density of the diet increased with age and income (P<0.05). Food groups with the highest densities for both sexes and across all income quartiles included salty preserved meats (997 mg/100 g), processed meats (974 mg/100 g), cheeses (883 mg/100 g), crackers (832 mg/100 g), sandwiches (800 mg/100 g), pizza (729 mg/100 g), and breads (646 mg/100 g), as well as oils, spreads, sauces, and condiments (804 mg/100 g). Altogether, these food groups contributed to 811 mg/day of sodium, which is more than half of the recommended daily sodium intake. Mean sodium intake in Brazil exceeded the tolerable upper intake level of 2,300 mg/day. Processed food contributed to half of the recommended intake and should be targeted by future public health policies aiming at reducing total sodium intake.

Contribution of foods consumed away from home to energy intake in Brazilian urban areas: the 2008-9 Nationwide Dietary Survey.

The objectives of the present study were to estimate the dietary contribution of away-from-home food consumption, to describe the contribution of away-from-home foods to energy intake, and to investigate the association between eating away from home and total energy intake in Brazilian urban areas. In the first Brazilian Nationwide Dietary Survey, conducted in 2008-9, food records were collected from 25 753 individuals aged 10 years or older, living in urban areas of Brazil. Foods were grouped into thirty-three food groups, and the mean energy intake provided by away-from-home food consumption was estimated. Linear regression models were used to evaluate the association between away-from-home food consumption and total energy intake. All analyses considered the sample design effect. Of the total population, 43 % consumed at least one food item away from home. The mean energy intake from foods consumed away from home was 1408 kJ (337 kcal), averaging 18 % of total energy intake. Eating away from home was associated with increased total energy intake, except for men in the highest income level. The highest percentage of away-from-home energy sources was for food with a high content of energy, such as alcoholic beverages (59 %), baked and deep-fried snacks (54 %), pizza (42 %), soft drinks (40 %), sandwiches (40 %), and sweets and desserts (30 %). The consumption of foods away from home was related to a greater energy intake. The characterisation of away-from-home food habits is necessary in order to properly design strategies to promote healthy food consumption in the away-from-home environment.

Association between serum TSH concentration within the normal range and adiposity.

BACKGROUND: Overt hypothyroidism is clearly related to body weight gain and greater adiposity, but the range of hormonal change in serum TSH concentration associated with weight gain remains a focus of debate. AIM: The aim of this review was to assess studies that evaluated the relationship between anthropometric measures and serum TSH concentration in euthyroid subjects. METHODS: Studies held on the Ovid MEDLINE database were searched and original articles published from 2000 to 2010 were included. The literature search was restricted to studies conducted in humans aged 18 years or older and written in English, Spanish, or Portuguese. Studies that evaluated the association between anthropometric measures and serum TSH within the normal range as the primary objective, as well as additional analysis, were included. RESULTS: A total of 29 studies met the inclusion criteria. Of the 29 studies, 18 showed a positive relationship between measures of adiposity and serum TSH. Despite the plausibility of this association, only two studies reported longitudinal findings. The influence of smoking on the association between serum TSH and anthropometric measures was evaluated in only three studies and remains unclear. CONCLUSION: Thus, further longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the mechanisms by which TSH concentration might impact body weight.